Colonial America: Contact and Exploration (1491-1607)

The massive transfer of plants, animals, diseases, people, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World following Columbus's voyages. It transformed ecosystems, diets, and populations on both sides of the Atlantic.

The diverse civilizations that existed in the Americas before European contact, ranging from nomadic hunter-gatherers to complex agricultural empires with cities, writing systems, and trade networks.

A Spanish colonial labor system in which colonists were granted control over indigenous peoples who were forced to provide labor and tribute in exchange for supposed protection and Christian instruction.

The dominant European economic theory holding that national wealth was measured by gold and silver reserves, and that colonies existed to enrich the mother country through favorable trade balances.

A business structure in which investors pooled capital to fund colonial ventures, sharing both the risks and potential profits. This model enabled expensive colonization without full government funding.

The ecological advantages Europeans gained through the Columbian Exchange, including domesticated animals (horses, cattle), crop transfers, and especially the devastating effect of Old World diseases on indigenous populations.

A network of religious and colonial outposts established by Spain across the Americas to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity, extract labor, and extend territorial control.

A papal agreement dividing the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal along a meridian in the Atlantic, granting Spain most of the Americas and Portugal control of Brazil and routes to Asia.