Psychology vs Sociology

Classical Conditioning

A learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, eventually eliciting a similar response on its own. This form of associative learning demonstrates how environmental signals can trigger automatic physiological and emotional reactions.

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning described by B.F. Skinner in which behavior is modified by its consequences, whether through reinforcement (which increases behavior) or punishment (which decreases it). Operant conditioning explains how voluntary behaviors are shaped by rewards and penalties in the environment.

Cognitive Dissonance

A theory proposed by Leon Festinger describing the psychological discomfort experienced when a person holds two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously. To reduce this discomfort, individuals often change their beliefs, acquire new information, or minimize the importance of the conflicting cognition.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow that arranges human needs in a pyramid, from basic physiological needs at the base to self-actualization at the top. According to this model, higher-level needs become motivating only after lower-level needs are substantially satisfied.

Attachment Theory

Developed by John Bowlby and expanded by Mary Ainsworth, this theory describes how early bonds between infants and their caregivers shape emotional development and influence relationship patterns throughout life. Secure attachment in infancy is associated with healthier social and emotional functioning in adulthood.

Socialization

The lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, norms, beliefs, and behaviors expected by their society. Socialization occurs through agents such as family, peers, schools, media, and religious institutions, and it is essential for both individual development and the continuity of culture.

Social Stratification

The hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in a society based on factors such as wealth, income, education, race, and power. Stratification systems range from rigid caste structures to more fluid class systems, but all involve unequal distribution of valued resources and opportunities.

Deviance

Behavior that violates the established norms or expectations of a group or society. Deviance is socially constructed, meaning what is considered deviant varies across cultures, time periods, and social contexts. Sociologists study how deviance is defined, who gets labeled deviant, and what functions deviance may serve for society.

Social Institutions

Organized, enduring sets of social relationships and practices that meet fundamental societal needs. The major social institutions include the family, education, religion, the economy, government, and healthcare. Each institution has established roles, norms, and structures that guide behavior and maintain social order.

Functionalism

A major theoretical perspective in sociology that views society as a complex system of interconnected parts working together to maintain stability and social order. Associated with Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, functionalism examines how each social institution contributes to the overall equilibrium of society.