Ethics

A consequentialist ethical theory holding that the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number. Developed by Jeremy Bentham and refined by John Stuart Mill, it evaluates actions solely by their outcomes and the aggregate happiness or well-being they generate.

An ethical framework asserting that the morality of an action depends on whether it conforms to rules, duties, or obligations, independent of its consequences. Immanuel Kant's formulation requires that moral principles be universalizable and that individuals never be treated merely as means to an end.

An ethical approach rooted in Aristotelian philosophy that emphasizes the development of good character traits, or virtues, as the foundation of moral life. Rather than prescribing specific rules, virtue ethics asks what a virtuous person would do and focuses on habits, dispositions, and the pursuit of eudaimonia (human flourishing).

Immanuel Kant's foundational moral principle, which demands that one act only according to maxims that could be willed as universal laws. It also requires treating every person as an end in themselves and never merely as a means, thereby grounding morality in respect for rational autonomy.

The view that moral judgments are not universally valid but are relative to cultural, societal, or individual frameworks. Descriptive moral relativism observes that different cultures hold different moral beliefs, while normative moral relativism claims that no single moral framework is objectively superior to another.

An ethical and political theory proposing that moral and political rules are justified because rational individuals would agree to them for mutual benefit. Key thinkers include Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, each offering different accounts of the hypothetical contract and its implications.

The normative theory that individuals ought to act in their own self-interest. Unlike psychological egoism, which claims people always do act self-interestedly, ethical egoism prescribes self-interest as the proper basis for moral action. Critics argue it fails to account for obligations to others.

A famous thought experiment in moral philosophy that presents a dilemma between actively causing harm to one person to save several others versus allowing harm to occur through inaction. It illuminates tensions between utilitarian and deontological reasoning and has become central to debates in applied ethics, including autonomous vehicle programming.

A branch of applied ethics that examines moral issues arising from advances in biology, medicine, and healthcare. Bioethics addresses questions such as the permissibility of euthanasia, the ethics of genetic modification, informed consent in medical research, and equitable distribution of healthcare resources.

The position that there are multiple, irreducible moral values or principles that can legitimately conflict, and that no single ethical theory captures the full complexity of moral life. Ethical pluralists argue that practical wisdom is needed to navigate trade-offs among competing moral demands.