History of Science and Technology Glossary

A pre-modern practice combining elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, and mysticism, aimed at transforming base metals into gold and discovering the elixir of life. It contributed to the development of modern chemistry.

An ancient astronomical instrument used to observe and calculate the positions of celestial bodies. Widely used in the Islamic Golden Age for navigation and timekeeping.

Large-scale scientific research projects characterized by massive funding, large teams, and expensive equipment, typically sponsored by governments or international organizations.

The paradigm shift from the geocentric (Earth-centered) to the heliocentric (Sun-centered) model of the solar system, initiated by Copernicus in 1543.

The branch of physics dealing with the interaction of electric and magnetic fields, unified by James Clerk Maxwell's equations in 1865.

The philosophical position that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation, rather than innate ideas or pure reason. A cornerstone of the scientific method.

An 18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, skepticism of authority, and individual rights, building on the achievements of the Scientific Revolution.

The scientific theory that microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses are the cause of many diseases, established by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in the 19th century.

The astronomical model in which the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, as proposed by Copernicus and later supported by Galileo and Kepler.

A testable, provisional explanation for an observed phenomenon, forming the basis for experimentation within the scientific method.

A form of reasoning that derives general principles from specific observations. Championed by Francis Bacon as the proper method of scientific inquiry.

The period of rapid industrialization beginning in late 18th-century Britain, characterized by the transition from hand production to machine manufacturing, powered by steam and later electricity.

The now-discredited theory that diseases were caused by 'bad air' or noxious vapors emanating from rotting organic matter. Replaced by germ theory in the 19th century.

The study of nature and the physical universe before the development of modern science. Practiced by figures from Aristotle to Newton, it was the precursor to modern physics, chemistry, and biology.

A framework of accepted theories, methods, and standards within which scientific research is conducted. Introduced in this sense by Thomas Kuhn.

A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline, as described by Thomas Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.

A heat-treatment process developed by Louis Pasteur to kill harmful microorganisms in food and beverages, particularly milk and wine.

The evaluation of scientific work by other experts in the same field before publication, serving as a quality-control mechanism for academic research.

The branch of physics that describes the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic scale, developed in the early 20th century by Planck, Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrodinger, and others.

Einstein's theories of special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915), which describe the relationship between space, time, mass, and gravity at high speeds and large scales.

A systematic procedure for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, and correcting prior knowledge through observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and analysis.

The period of dramatic change in scientific thought from the 16th to 18th centuries, establishing the foundations of modern science through the work of Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, and others.

A heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Thomas Newcomen built the first practical version (1712), and James Watt's improvements (1769) powered the Industrial Revolution.

The theory that a society's technology is the primary driver of its social structure and cultural values, shaping history more than ideas or politics.

The branch of physics dealing with heat, energy, and work. Its laws, formulated in the 19th century, are fundamental to understanding engines, refrigeration, and the arrow of time.