Neuroscience Glossary

A rapid, transient reversal of the electrical charge across a neuron's membrane that propagates along the axon as the fundamental unit of neural signaling.

A bilateral limbic structure involved in emotional processing, particularly fear conditioning, and in modulating the emotional significance of memories.

A star-shaped glial cell in the CNS that provides metabolic support to neurons, maintains the blood-brain barrier, regulates extracellular ion concentrations, and modulates synaptic transmission.

The elongated projection of a neuron that conducts action potentials away from the cell body toward the synaptic terminals for communication with other cells.

A group of subcortical nuclei involved in the regulation of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, habit formation, and reward processing.

A highly selective semipermeable membrane formed by CNS capillary endothelial cells and astrocyte end-feet that protects the brain from pathogens and toxins while allowing essential nutrients to pass.

A major brain structure located posteriorly and inferiorly that coordinates voluntary movements, maintains balance and posture, and contributes to motor learning.

The outermost layer of the cerebrum composed of folded gray matter responsible for higher-order functions including perception, cognition, language, and voluntary movement.

A branching projection of a neuron that receives electrochemical signals from other neurons through synaptic contacts and conducts them toward the cell body.

A monoamine neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, motor control, and executive function, produced in the ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra.

A non-invasive neuroimaging technique that records the brain's electrical activity from the scalp with high temporal resolution, used in diagnosing epilepsy and studying cognitive processes.

A neuroimaging technique that detects brain activity by measuring changes in blood oxygenation levels (BOLD signal), providing high spatial resolution maps of active brain regions.

The principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system that reduces neuronal excitability by opening chloride channels and hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane.

The most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, critical for synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory through its action on AMPA and NMDA receptors.

A medial temporal lobe structure essential for the encoding and consolidation of new declarative memories and spatial navigation.

A small diencephalic structure that regulates homeostatic functions including body temperature, hunger, thirst, and circadian rhythms, and links the nervous and endocrine systems via the pituitary gland.

A persistent strengthening of synaptic connections resulting from high-frequency stimulation, widely considered a key cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory.

A fatty insulating substance that wraps around axons and is produced by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS, enabling rapid saltatory conduction of action potentials.

A class of disorders characterized by the progressive loss of neuronal structure and function, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

The process of generating new neurons from neural stem or progenitor cells, which continues in limited brain regions such as the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone throughout adult life.

The nervous system's ability to modify its structure, connections, and function in response to experience, learning, injury, or environmental changes throughout the lifespan.

An endogenous chemical messenger released at the presynaptic terminal that crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic cell to transmit, modulate, or inhibit neural signals.

The electrical potential difference across a neuron's membrane when it is not being stimulated, typically around -70 millivolts, maintained by ion pumps and selective ion channel permeability.

A monoamine neurotransmitter produced primarily in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem that modulates mood, appetite, sleep, and pain perception.

The specialized junction between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell where electrochemical signal transmission occurs across the synaptic cleft.