Physical Geography

The theory that Earth's outer shell (lithosphere) is divided into several large plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere and move relative to one another, driven by convection currents in the mantle. Plate interactions cause earthquakes, volcanism, mountain building, and ocean basin formation.

The continuous movement of water through the Earth system via evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and groundwater flow. This cycle redistributes water and energy across the planet and is fundamental to weather, climate, and life.

Weathering is the in-place breakdown of rocks and minerals by physical (mechanical), chemical, or biological processes. Erosion is the transport of weathered material by agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity. Together they shape landforms over time.

The systematic categorization of Earth's climates based on temperature, precipitation, and seasonal patterns. The most widely used system is the Koppen climate classification, which divides climates into five major groups: tropical, arid, temperate, continental, and polar.

The process by which glaciers form, advance, and reshape the landscape through erosion (plucking and abrasion) and deposition. Glacial processes have sculpted much of the terrain in higher latitudes and altitudes, leaving distinctive landforms.

The study of the geographic distribution of species and ecosystems across space and through geological time. It examines why organisms live where they do and how factors like climate, geology, and evolution influence biodiversity patterns.

The process by which soil develops from parent material through the combined influence of five soil-forming factors identified by Hans Jenny: climate, organisms, relief (topography), parent material, and time (collectively remembered as CLORPT).

The large-scale movement of air across the Earth's surface driven by differential solar heating, the Coriolis effect, and pressure gradients. The three-cell model (Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells) describes the major global wind patterns and pressure belts.

The set of processes associated with rivers and streams, including erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediment. Fluvial geomorphology studies how rivers shape the landscape, form drainage networks, and create features such as floodplains, deltas, and meanders.

Extreme natural events that arise from physical geographic processes and pose risks to human populations and infrastructure. These include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, landslides, hurricanes, and tsunamis, all of which are studied by physical geographers.