Psychology — Neuroplasticity, Validity (extended) Cheat Sheet

The core ideas of Psychology — Neuroplasticity, Validity (extended) distilled into a single, scannable reference — perfect for review or quick lookup.

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Quick Reference

Classical Conditioning

A learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, eventually eliciting a similar response on its own. This form of associative learning demonstrates how environmental signals can trigger automatic physiological and emotional reactions.

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning described by B.F. Skinner in which behavior is modified by its consequences, whether through reinforcement (which increases behavior) or punishment (which decreases it). Operant conditioning explains how voluntary behaviors are shaped by rewards and penalties in the environment.

Cognitive Dissonance

A theory proposed by Leon Festinger describing the psychological discomfort experienced when a person holds two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously. To reduce this discomfort, individuals often change their beliefs, acquire new information, or minimize the importance of the conflicting cognition.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow that arranges human needs in a pyramid, from basic physiological needs at the base to self-actualization at the top. According to this model, higher-level needs become motivating only after lower-level needs are substantially satisfied.

Attachment Theory

Developed by John Bowlby and expanded by Mary Ainsworth, this theory describes how early bonds between infants and their caregivers shape emotional development and influence relationship patterns throughout life. Secure attachment in infancy is associated with healthier social and emotional functioning in adulthood.

The Unconscious Mind

A central concept in psychodynamic psychology, referring to mental processes that occur outside of conscious awareness but still influence thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Sigmund Freud proposed that repressed memories, desires, and unresolved conflicts in the unconscious mind drive much of human behavior.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. Neuroplasticity allows the brain to adjust to new experiences, learn new information, recover from injuries, and compensate for damage to certain areas.

Conformity and Obedience

Social psychological concepts describing how individuals adjust their behavior to align with group norms (conformity) or comply with demands from authority figures (obedience). Solomon Asch's conformity experiments and Stanley Milgram's obedience studies are landmark demonstrations of these powerful social influences.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

An evidence-based psychotherapy approach that addresses dysfunctional thinking patterns and maladaptive behaviors. CBT is grounded in the idea that distorted cognitions contribute to emotional distress, and that systematically identifying and restructuring these thoughts can alleviate psychological symptoms.

Nature vs. Nurture

A foundational debate in psychology concerning the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in determining human behavior, personality, and mental abilities. Modern psychology recognizes that genes and environment interact in complex ways rather than operating independently.

Key Terms at a Glance

Attachment:The emotional bond formed between an infant and caregiver that influences the child's social and emotional development throughout life.

Behaviorism:A psychological perspective that focuses exclusively on observable behavior and the environmental stimuli that shape it, rejecting the study of internal mental states.

Bystander Effect:The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when other bystanders are present.

Classical Conditioning:A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Cognitive Dissonance:The psychological discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors simultaneously.

Confirmation Bias:The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Developmental Psychology:The branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social changes across the human lifespan from conception to death.

Dopamine:A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, motor control, and several psychiatric and neurological conditions.

Ego:In Freudian theory, the part of the psyche that mediates between the instinctual desires of the id and the moral standards of the superego.

Empiricism:The philosophical and scientific principle that knowledge should be based on systematic observation and experience rather than speculation.

Extinction:In conditioning, the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response when reinforcement or the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented.

Heuristic:A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies decision-making but can sometimes lead to systematic errors or biases.

Hypothesis:A testable prediction about the relationship between variables, derived from a theory and subject to empirical investigation.

Id:In Freudian theory, the primitive part of the psyche that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of instinctual drives.

Intrinsic Motivation:Motivation driven by internal rewards such as personal satisfaction, curiosity, or enjoyment rather than external incentives.

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