Psychology — Neuroplasticity, Validity (extended) Glossary

The emotional bond formed between an infant and caregiver that influences the child's social and emotional development throughout life.

A psychological perspective that focuses exclusively on observable behavior and the environmental stimuli that shape it, rejecting the study of internal mental states.

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when other bystanders are present.

A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

The psychological discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors simultaneously.

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

The branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social changes across the human lifespan from conception to death.

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, motor control, and several psychiatric and neurological conditions.

In Freudian theory, the part of the psyche that mediates between the instinctual desires of the id and the moral standards of the superego.

The philosophical and scientific principle that knowledge should be based on systematic observation and experience rather than speculation.

In conditioning, the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response when reinforcement or the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented.

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies decision-making but can sometimes lead to systematic errors or biases.

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables, derived from a theory and subject to empirical investigation.

In Freudian theory, the primitive part of the psyche that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of instinctual drives.

Motivation driven by internal rewards such as personal satisfaction, curiosity, or enjoyment rather than external incentives.

A chemical messenger that transmits signals across synapses between neurons, playing a key role in brain function and behavior.

Learning that occurs by watching and imitating the behavior of others, without requiring direct reinforcement of the learner.

A form of learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

A measurable improvement in a condition that occurs in response to an inactive treatment, driven by the patient's expectations and beliefs.

An approach to psychology that emphasizes unconscious processes, internal conflicts, and early childhood experiences as determinants of behavior.

Any consequence that increases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated, including both positive and negative forms.

A cognitive structure or mental framework that organizes and interprets information based on prior knowledge and experience.

An individual's belief in their own ability to succeed in specific situations, a concept developed by Albert Bandura.

In Freudian theory, the part of the psyche that represents internalized moral standards and ideals, often in conflict with the id.

Any factor that can be measured, controlled, or manipulated in a research study, including independent, dependent, and confounding variables.