Sociology Glossary

Marx's concept describing the estrangement of workers from the products of their labor, the labor process, their fellow workers, and their own human potential under capitalism.

A condition of normlessness in which social norms are weakened or absent, leading to confusion, insecurity, and higher rates of deviance. Coined by Emile Durkheim.

A formal organizational structure characterized by hierarchical authority, written rules and procedures, specialization of tasks, and impersonal relationships. Analyzed extensively by Max Weber.

Spontaneous and relatively unstructured behavior by groups of people responding to a common stimulus, including crowds, social movements, fads, and panics.

A sociological perspective emphasizing that social life is shaped by groups competing for power and resources, with social structures reflecting and perpetuating inequality.

The principle that a culture should be understood and evaluated on its own terms rather than judged according to the standards of another culture.

Any behavior, belief, or condition that violates the social norms of a particular group or society. What counts as deviant is socially constructed and varies across contexts.

The tendency to view one's own culture as superior and to use it as the standard by which other cultures are evaluated.

Informal norms that govern everyday behavior, such as table manners or greetings. Violations of folkways are generally met with mild disapproval rather than severe punishment.

A theoretical perspective that views society as a system of interdependent parts working together to maintain stability and fulfill essential functions for the whole.

The increasing interconnectedness of societies through the flow of goods, capital, people, information, and culture across national boundaries.

Max Weber's analytical tool: a simplified, abstract model of a social phenomenon that highlights its essential characteristics for purposes of comparison and analysis.

A perspective arguing that deviance results not from the act itself but from the social process of applying negative labels to individuals or groups, often by those in power.

Robert Merton's distinction between the intended, recognized consequences of social actions (manifest functions) and the unintended, often unrecognized consequences (latent functions).

Strongly held norms with moral significance. Violations of mores provoke serious social consequences, including legal punishment. Examples include prohibitions against theft and violence.

Shared rules and expectations that guide behavior within a group or society. Norms range from informal folkways to formally codified laws.

The tension that arises when the expectations of two or more social roles held by an individual are incompatible, such as being a dedicated employee and an attentive parent simultaneously.

The networks of relationships, trust, and reciprocity that provide individuals and groups with access to resources, information, and opportunities.

The idea that many aspects of social reality (such as race, gender, and deviance) are created and maintained through ongoing social interaction and shared meaning-making rather than being fixed in nature.

Durkheim's term for the external social forces (norms, values, institutions) that constrain individual behavior and exist independently of any single person's will.

The system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy based on wealth, power, and prestige, resulting in unequal distribution of resources and opportunities.

The lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and roles of their society from agents such as family, schools, peers, and media.

C. Wright Mills' concept describing the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social and historical forces.

A micro-level sociological perspective that focuses on how people create, interpret, and negotiate meaning through symbols and everyday social interaction.

Max Weber's method of empathetic understanding, in which the sociologist seeks to grasp the subjective meanings and motivations behind individuals' social actions.